Rules of the air
Where the rules come from
Three levels, each one sitting inside the one above it.
The ICAO annex that sets the international standard.
The version that applies across the EU.
Each nation adds its own rules, published in its AIP.
The same rules, narrowed down at each level.
General rules
Click a rule to open it.
Pilot-in-commandResponsible for the aircraft, and holds the final authority
The pilot-in-command is responsible for the operation of the aircraft, and has to prepare before the flight.
They hold the final authority over the aircraft while in command.
A pilot-in-command must not drink alcohol or use drugs before flying.
Flying over congested areasHigh enough to land clear if something goes wrong
Only fly over a congested area at a height that would let you land clear of people and property if an emergency arose. That height is the VFR minimum: 1 000 ft above the highest obstacle within 600 m, under minimum heights further down.
The rule sets how high to fly. It is not a permission to land. If an emergency does happen, the pilot-in-command’s final authority applies: they may put the aircraft down, taking care not to harm people or property on the surface.
An aircraft must not be operated in a negligent or reckless manner.
Aviation runs on UTC, also called Zulu time, on a 24-hour day. Covered in LAW 003.
Flight rules and conditions
Two separate things: the rules the flight is flown under, and the weather it is flown in.
Every flight is flown under one set of flight rules or the other. The weather, separately, is one or the other: IMC is whenever it is below the minima set for VMC.
Altitude, height and flight level
What the altimeter is set to decides what you are reading.
The local pressure reduced to mean sea level according to the ISA. Set below the transition altitude, so the altimeter reads altitude.
The standard pressure setting: an agreed figure rather than the real pressure. Set climbing past the transition altitude, and kept down to the transition level, so everyone reads the same flight levels.
Cruising levels
Which level you fly depends on your magnetic track. The full table is in SERA Appendix 3.
Eastbound: odd flight levels. The green ones are the VFR levels, 500 ft above.
Westbound: even flight levels, with the VFR levels 500 ft above again.
| Magnetic track 000°–179° | Magnetic track 180°–359° | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| IFR | VFR | IFR | VFR |
| FL 110 | FL 115 | FL 120 | FL 125 |
| FL 130 | FL 135 | FL 140 | FL 145 |
| FL 150 | FL 155 | FL 160 | FL 165 |
| FL 170 | FL 175 | FL 180 | FL 185 |
| FL 190 | FL 195 | FL 200 | FL 205 |
| FL 210 | FL 215 | FL 220 | FL 225 |
| FL 230 | FL 235 | FL 240 | FL 245 |
The table is SERA Appendix 3, so it runs past the VFR ceiling. VFR is not allowed above FL 195 without authorisation, and never above FL 285. Both limits are under VFR rules below.
RVSM
Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum.
The pilot has to be trained for RVSM and the aircraft has to carry the equipment. State aircraft, military included, are exempt from the approval requirement: one that is not approved is kept 2 000 ft from other traffic instead.
VFR stops at FL 285, the highest VFR cruising level below the band, so no VFR flight reaches FL 290. That is the same FL 285 behind the Class A rule in LAW 004.
Lights
Every aircraft must show anti-collision lights, and navigation lights at night.
Collision avoidance and right of way
An aircraft must not be flown so close to another that it creates a collision hazard.
Both aircraft alter heading to the right.
The one with the other on its right gives way. Pass behind: never over, under or in front of it. Altering to the right is the usual way to do that.
The overtaking aircraft alters to the right and passes on that side.
Head-on and overtaking are solved by turning right. Converging is solved by giving way behind.
Operation in the vicinity of an aerodrome
The traffic circuit, leg by leg.
In test mode the answers are hidden. Click or tap a card to reveal it.
Signals
Five kinds of signal are covered.
Preferably said three times. Serious and imminent danger, requiring immediate assistance.
Preferably said three times. A condition concerning the safety of the aircraft, or of a person on board or within sight, but not requiring immediate assistance.
Given with a signalling lamp, an Aldis lamp, using green, red and white light.
Surface knowledge only: what each signal means is not required.
Marshalling is the set of hand signals a marshaller on the ground gives to a taxiing aircraft: this way, slow down, stop, chocks in. Not on the course, noted here so the word is not a blank.
Unusual types of flight
Types of flight with rules of their own.
Pilots must know and understand P-areas, R-areas and D-areas. They are in LAW 004.
VFR rules
The rules a flight flown under VFR has to comply with.
A VFR flight must stay within the VMC minima at all times. They are in the next section.
A VFR flight at a controlled aerodrome is a controlled flight, so it needs an ATC clearance before taking off.
1 000 ft over congested areas, 500 ft elsewhere. Covered under minimum heights below, next to the IFR figures.
VFR flights are not flown at transonic or supersonic speeds.
VFR is not allowed above FL 195, with a few exceptions.
VFR flights do not fly in RVSM airspace, which starts at FL 290. The highest VFR level below it is FL 285.
VFR at night follows extra rules of its own. The course has not covered them yet. The one night rule that has come up is that special VFR is daytime only, which is under special VFR below.
A VFR flight in Class B, C or D counts as a controlled flight: it needs an ATC clearance and has to comply with it. The classes are in LAW 004.
VMC minima
Applies in airspace classes B–G. The same minima are in LAW 004.
Class F and G, at and below 3 000 ft AMSL, or 1 000 ft above the terrain, whichever is the higher. The cloud distances do not apply there. Instead: stay clear of cloud, keep the surface in sight, and 5 km visibility.
Special VFR
A VFR flight that ATC clears to operate inside a control zone when the weather is below VMC.
It only applies inside a CTR.
Should not fly faster than that, so there is time to see and avoid other traffic.
Unless the competent authority permits otherwise.
For helicopters, less than 800 m.
IFR
The rules a flight flown under IFR has to comply with.
An IFR flight has to be equipped with instruments suitable for the route being flown.
Never fly below the safety height. The figures are under minimum heights below.
An IFR flight can change over to VFR.
An IFR flight shall comply with ATC.
Minimum heights
The same shape of rule under both sets of rules: a height above the highest obstacle inside a radius. Only the height and the radius change.
Equipment
Zones where carrying and using certain equipment is mandatory.
ATC clearance
A clearance has to be obtained before operating as a controlled flight.
If a clearance is not satisfactory, the pilot-in-command shall tell ATC.
An aircraft shall not taxi at a controlled aerodrome without a clearance.
National differences are published in each country’s AIP. The AIP itself is covered in LAW 006.